Ethiopia (2003) | Cayman Islands (2006) | |
Administrative divisions | 9 ethnically-based states (kililoch, singular - kilil) and 2 self-governing administrations* (astedaderoch, singular - astedader); Adis Abeba* (Addis Ababa), Afar, Amara (Amhara), Binshangul Gumuz, Dire Dawa*, Gambela Hizboch (Gambela Peoples), Hareri Hizb (Harari People), Oromiya (Oromia), Sumale (Somali), Tigray, Ye Debub Biheroch Bihereseboch na Hizboch (Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples) | 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western |
Age structure | 0-14 years: 44.8% (male 14,944,168; female 14,871,164)
15-64 years: 52.4% (male 17,474,403; female 17,384,817) 65 years and over: 2.8% (male 840,057; female 1,042,944) (2003 est.) |
0-14 years: 20.7% (male 4,708/female 4,700)
15-64 years: 70.9% (male 15,707/female 16,504) 65 years and over: 8.4% (male 1,793/female 2,024) (2006 est.) |
Agriculture - products | cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseed, sugarcane, potatoes, qat; hides, cattle, sheep, goats | vegetables, fruit; livestock; turtle farming |
Airports | 83 (2002) | 3 (2006) |
Airports - with paved runways | total: 14
over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2002) |
total: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2006) |
Airports - with unpaved runways | total: 69
over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 10 914 to 1,523 m: 32 under 914 m: 21 (2002) |
total: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2006) |
Area | total: 1,127,127 sq km
land: 1,119,683 sq km water: 7,444 sq km |
total: 262 sq km
land: 262 sq km water: 0 sq km |
Area - comparative | slightly less than twice the size of Texas | 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC |
Background | Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exception being the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was finally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty elections were held in 1995. A two and a half year border war with Eritrea ended with a peace treaty on 12 December 2000. Final demarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopian objections to an international commission's finding requiring it to surrender sensitive territory. | The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries, and were administered by Jamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory within the Federation of the West Indies, but when the Federation dissolved in 1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency. |
Birth rate | 39.81 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) | 12.74 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) |
Budget | revenues: $1.8 billion
expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $600 million (2002 est.) |
revenues: $423.8 million
expenditures: $392.6 million; including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) |
Capital | Addis Ababa | name: George Town (on Grand Cayman)
geographic coordinates: 19 20 N, 81 23 W time difference: UTC-5 (same time as Washington, DC during Standard Time) |
Climate | tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation | tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April) |
Coastline | 0 km (landlocked) | 160 km |
Constitution | ratified December 1994; effective 22 August 1995 | 1959; revised 1962, 1972, and 1994 |
Country name | conventional long form: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
conventional short form: Ethiopia local long form: Ityop'iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik local short form: Ityop'iya former: Abyssinia, Italian East Africa abbreviation: FDRE |
conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Cayman Islands |
Currency | birr (ETB) | - |
Death rate | 20.17 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) | 4.89 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) |
Debt - external | $5.3 billion (2001 est.) | $70 million (1996) |
Dependency status | - | overseas territory of the UK |
Diplomatic representation from the US | chief of mission: Ambassador Aurelia A. BRAZEAL
embassy: Entoto Street, Addis Ababa mailing address: P. O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa telephone: [251] (1) 550666 FAX: [251] (1) 551328 |
none (overseas territory of the UK) |
Diplomatic representation in the US | chief of mission: Ambassador KASSAHUN Ayele
chancery: 3506 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 364-1200 FAX: [1] (202) 686-9551 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles consulate(s): New York |
none (overseas territory of the UK) |
Disputes - international | Eritrea and Ethiopia agreed to abide by 2002 independent boundary commission delimitation decision, but demarcation, scheduled to begin in 2003, has been hampered by technical delays and Ethiopian concerns that the decision ignored "human geography" and awarded Badme, the focus of the 1998-2000 war, to Eritrea, demarcation of the boundary has been postponed indefinately; Ethiopia maintains only an administrative line and no international border with the Oromo region of southern Somalia and maintains alliances with local clans in opposition to the Transitional National Government in Mogadishu; "Somaliland" secessionists provide port facilities and trade ties to land-locked Ethiopia; efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan have been delayed by civil war there | none |
Economic aid - recipient | $308 million (FY00/01) | $390,000 $NA |
Economy - overview | Ethiopia's poverty-stricken economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, 85% of exports, and 80% of total employment. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent drought and poor cultivation practices. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy with exports of some $270 million in 2000/01, but historically low prices have seen many farmers switching to qat to supplement their income. The war with Eritrea in 1999-2000 and recurrent drought have buffeted the economy, in particular coffee production. In November 2001 Ethiopia qualified for debt relief from the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Under Ethiopia's land tenure system, the government owns all land and provides long-term leases to the tenants; the system continues to hamper growth in the industrial sector as entrepreneurs are unable to use land as collateral for loans. Strong growth in 2002 resulted from good rainfall early in the year, the cessation of hostilities, and renewed foreign aid and debt relief. But drought struck again late in 2002, and the World Food Program (WFP) estimates 14 million Ethiopians need food immediately to survive into 2003. The government estimates than annual growth of 7% is needed to reduce poverty, yet the maintenance of 5% in 2003 will be quite difficult (one estimate is for 1.5% growth). | With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 1998, including almost 600 banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. A stock exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.2 million in 1997, with 600,000 from the US. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world. |
Electricity - consumption | 1.594 billion kWh (2001) | 411 million kWh (2003) |
Electricity - exports | 0 kWh (2001) | 0 kWh (2003) |
Electricity - imports | 0 kWh (2001) | 0 kWh (2003) |
Electricity - production | 1.713 billion kWh (2001) | 441.9 million kWh (2003) |
Electricity - production by source | fossil fuel: 1.3%
hydro: 97.6% nuclear: 0% other: 1.2% (2001) |
- |
Elevation extremes | lowest point: Denakil Depression -125 m
highest point: Ras Dejen 4,620 m |
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: The Bluff (Cayman Brac) 43 m |
Environment - current issues | deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water shortages in some areas from water-intensive farming and poor management | no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchments |
Environment - international agreements | party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban |
- |
Ethnic groups | Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigre 32%, Sidamo 9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage 2%, other 1% | mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20% |
Exchange rates | birr per US dollar - NA (2002), 8.46 (2001), 8.22 (2000), 7.94 (1999), 7.12 (1998)
note: since 24 October 2001 exchange rates are determined on a daily basis via interbank transactions regulated by the Central Bank |
Caymanian dollars per US dollar - 0.82 (29 October 2001), 0.83 (3 November 1995), 0.85 (22 November 1993) |
Executive branch | chief of state: President GIRMA Woldegiorgis (since 8 October 2001)
head of government: Prime Minister MELES Zenawi (since NA August 1995) cabinet: Council of Ministers as provided for in the December 1994 constitution; ministers are selected by the prime minister and approved by the House of People's Representatives elections: president elected by the House of People's Representatives for a six-year term; election last held 8 October 2001 (next to be held NA October 2007); prime minister designated by the party in power following legislative elections election results: GIRMA Woldegiorgis elected president; percent of vote by the House of People's Representatives - 100% |
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952); Governor Stuart JACK (since 23 November 2005)
head of government: Leader of Government Business Kurt TIBBETTS (since 18 May 2005) cabinet: Executive Council (three members appointed by the governor, four members elected by the Legislative Assembly) elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; the governor is appointed by the monarch; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or coalition is appointed by the governor Leader of Government Business |
Exports | NA (2001) | NA bbl/day |
Exports - commodities | coffee, qat, gold, leather products, live animals, oilseeds | turtle products, manufactured consumer goods |
Exports - partners | UK 16.2%, Djibouti 10.9%, Germany 7.6%, Italy 7.2%, Japan 6.7%, Saudi Arabia 6.5%, US 4.4% (2002) | mostly US (2004) |
Fiscal year | 8 July - 7 July | 1 April - 31 March |
Flag description | three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the three main colors of her flag were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the pan-African colors | blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS |
GDP | purchasing power parity - $48.53 billion (2002 est.) | - |
GDP - composition by sector | agriculture: 52%
industry: 11% services: 37% (2001 est.) |
agriculture: 1.4%
industry: 3.2% services: 95.4% (1994 est.) |
GDP - per capita | purchasing power parity - $700 (2002 est.) | - |
GDP - real growth rate | 3% (2002 est.) | 0.9% (2004 est.) |
Geographic coordinates | 8 00 N, 38 00 E | 19 30 N, 80 30 W |
Geography - note | landlocked - entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 24 May 1993; the Blue Nile, the chief headstream of the Nile by water volume, rises in T'ana Hayk (Lake Tana) in northwest Ethiopia; three major crops are believed to have originated in Ethiopia: coffee, grain sorghum, and castor bean | important location between Cuba and Central America |
Highways | total: 31,571 km
paved: 3,789 km unpaved: 27,782 km (2000) |
- |
Household income or consumption by percentage share | lowest 10%: 3%
highest 10%: 33.7% (1995) |
lowest 10%: NA%
highest 10%: NA% |
Illicit drugs | transit hub for heroin originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America as well as cocaine destined for markets in southern Africa; cultivates qat (khat) for local use and regional export, principally to Djibouti and Somalia (legal in all three countries); the lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center | offshore financial center; vulnerable to drug transshipment to the US and Europe |
Imports | NA (2001) | NA bbl/day |
Imports - commodities | food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles, cereals, textiles | foodstuffs, manufactured goods |
Imports - partners | Saudi Arabia 28.7%, China 6%, Italy 5.9%, India 4.8%, Germany 4.1% (2002) | US, Netherlands Antilles, Japan (2004) |
Independence | oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world - at least 2,000 years | none (overseas territory of the UK) |
Industrial production growth rate | 6.7% (2001 est.) | NA% |
Industries | food processing, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metals processing, cement | tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture |
Infant mortality rate | total: 103.22 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 113.48 deaths/1,000 live births female: 92.65 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) |
total: 8 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 9.16 deaths/1,000 live births female: 6.81 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) |
Inflation rate (consumer prices) | 4% (2003 est.) | 4.4% (2004) |
International organization participation | ACP, AfDB, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer) | Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC, UNESCO (associate), UPU |
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) | 1 (2002) | - |
Irrigated land | 1,900 sq km (1998 est.) | NA |
Judicial branch | Federal Supreme Court (the president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits to the House of People's Representatives for appointment candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council) | Summary Court; Grand Court; Cayman Islands Court of Appeal |
Labor force | NA | 23,450 (2004) |
Labor force - by occupation | agriculture and animal husbandry 80%, government and services 12%, industry and construction 8% (1985) | agriculture: 1.4%
industry: 12.6% services: 86% (1995) |
Land boundaries | total: 5,328 km
border countries: Djibouti 349 km, Eritrea 912 km, Kenya 861 km, Somalia 1,600 km, Sudan 1,606 km |
0 km |
Land use | arable land: 9.9%
permanent crops: 0.65% other: 89.45% (1998 est.) |
arable land: 3.85%
permanent crops: 0% other: 96.15% (2005) |
Languages | Amharic, Tigrinya, Oromigna, Guaragigna, Somali, Arabic, other local languages, English (major foreign language taught in schools) | English |
Legal system | currently transitional mix of national and regional courts | British common law and local statutes |
Legislative branch | bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Federation or upper chamber (108 seats; members are chosen by state assemblies to serve five-year terms) and the House of People's Representatives or lower chamber (548 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote from single-member districts to serve five-year terms)
elections: last held 14 May 2000 (next to be held NA May 2005) election results: percent of vote - NA%; seats by party - OPDO 177, ANDM 134, TPLF 38, WGGPDO 27, EPRDF 19, SPDO 18, GNDM 15, KSPDO 10, ANDP 8, GPRDF 7, SOPDM 7, BGPDUF 6, BMPDO 5, KAT 4, other regional political groupings 22, independents 8; note - 43 seats unconfirmed note: irregularities and violence at a number of polling stations necessitated the rescheduling of voting in certain constituencies; voting postponed in Somali regional state because of severe drought |
unicameral Legislative Assembly (18 seats, 3 appointed members from the Executive Council and 15 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
elections: last held 11 May 2005 (next to be held in 2009) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PPM 9, UDP 5, independent 1 |
Life expectancy at birth | total population: 41.24 years
male: 40.39 years female: 42.11 years (2003 est.) |
total population: 80.07 years
male: 77.45 years female: 82.74 years (2006 est.) |
Literacy | definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 42.7% male: 50.3% female: 35.1% (2003 est.) |
definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
total population: 98% male: 98% female: 98% (1970 est.) |
Location | Eastern Africa, west of Somalia | Caribbean, three island (Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, Little Cayman) group in Caribbean Sea, 240 km south of Cuba and 268 km northwest of Jamaica |
Map references | Africa | Central America and the Caribbean |
Maritime claims | none (landlocked) | territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm |
Merchant marine | total: 9 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 81,933 GRT/101,287 DWT
ships by type: cargo 5, container 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 2 (2002 est.) |
total: 132 ships (1000 GRT or over) 2,746,290 GRT/4,366,790 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 32, cargo 14, chemical tanker 42, liquefied gas 1, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 14, refrigerated cargo 23, roll on/roll off 3, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 1 foreign-owned: 130 (Denmark 5, Germany 13, Greece 21, Italy 12, Japan 1, Malaysia 1, Netherlands 4, Norway 2, Philippines 1, Singapore 10, Sweden 9, UK 10, US 41) (2006) |
Military - note | - | defense is the responsibility of the UK |
Military branches | Ethiopian National Defense Force (Ground Forces, Air Force, militia, police)
note: Ethiopia is landlocked and has no navy; following the secession of Eritrea, Ethiopian naval facilities remained in Eritrean possession |
no regular military forces; Royal Cayman Islands Police Force |
Military expenditures - dollar figure | $800 million (FY00) | - |
Military expenditures - percent of GDP | 12.6% (FY00) | - |
Military manpower - availability | males age 15-49: 15,388,318 (2003 est.) | - |
Military manpower - fit for military service | males age 15-49: 8,040,381 (2003 est.) | - |
Military manpower - military age | 18 years of age (2003 est.) | - |
Military manpower - reaching military age annually | males: 714,165 (2003 est.) | - |
National holiday | National Day (defeat of MENGISTU regime), 28 May (1991) | Constitution Day, first Monday in July |
Nationality | noun: Ethiopian(s)
adjective: Ethiopian |
noun: Caymanian(s)
adjective: Caymanian |
Natural hazards | geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts | hurricanes (July to November) |
Natural resources | small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas, hydropower | fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism |
Net migration rate | 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population
note: repatriation of Ethiopians who fled to Sudan for refuge from war and famine in earlier years is expected to continue for several years; some Sudanese and Somali refugees, who fled to Ethiopia from the fighting or famine in their own countries, continue to return to their homes (2003 est.) |
17.78 migrant(s)/1,000 population
note: major destination for Cubans trying to migrate to the US (2006 est.) |
Political parties and leaders | Afar National Democratic Party or ANDP [leader NA]; Amhara National Democratic Movement or ANDM [ADDISU Legesse]; Bench Madji People's Democratic Organization or BMPDO [leader NA]; Benishangul Gumuz People's Democratic Unity Front or BGPDUF [leader NA]; Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front or EPRDF [MELES Zenawi] (an alliance of ANDM, OPDO, SEPDF, and TPLF); Gedeyo People's Revolutionary Democratic Front or GPRDF [leader NA]; Gurage Nationalities' Democratic Movement or GNDM [leader NA]; Kafa Shaka People's Democratic Organization or KSPDO [leader NA]; Kembata, Alabaa and Tembaro or KAT [leader NA]; Oromo People's Democratic Organization or OPDO [JUNEDI Sado]; Sidamo People's Democratic Organization or SPDO [leader NA]; South Omo People's Democratic Movement or SOPDM [leader NA]; Tigrayan People's Liberation Front or TPLF [MELES Zenawi]; Walayta, Gamo, Gofa, Dawro, and Konta People's Democratic Organization or WGGPDO [leader NA]; dozens of small parties | no national teams (loose groupings of political organizations) were formed for the 2000 elections; United Democratic Party or UDP [leader McKeeva BUSH]; People's Progressive Movement or PPM [leader Kurt TIBBETTS] |
Political pressure groups and leaders | Afar Revolutionary Democratic Union Front or ARDUF [leader NA]; Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia or CAFPDE [BEYANE Petros]; Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition or SEPDC [BEYANE Petros] | NA |
Population | 66,557,553
note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2003 est.) |
45,436
note: most of the population lives on Grand Cayman (July 2006 est.) |
Population below poverty line | 45% (2002 est.) | NA% |
Population growth rate | 1.96% (2003 est.) | 2.56% (2006 est.) |
Ports and harbors | none; Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Assab and Massawa; since the border dispute with Eritrea flared, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports | - |
Radio broadcast stations | AM 8, FM 0, shortwave 1 (2001) | AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (2004) |
Railways | total: 681 km (Ethiopian segment of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad)
narrow gauge: 681 km 1.000-m gauge note: railway under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia (2002) |
- |
Religions | Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%-8% | United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Church of God, other Protestant, Roman Catholic |
Sex ratio | at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2003 est.) |
at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2006 est.) |
Suffrage | 18 years of age; universal | 18 years of age; universal |
Telephone system | general assessment: open-wire and microwave radio relay system; adequate for government use
domestic: open-wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the HF, VHF, and UHF frequencies; two domestic satellites provide the national trunk service international: open-wire to Sudan and Djibouti; microwave radio relay to Kenya and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Pacific Ocean) |
general assessment: reasonably good system
domestic: liberalization of telecom market in 2003 reflected in falling prices and improving services international: country code - 1-345; 2 submarine fiber optic cables (Maya-1, Cayman-Jamaica); satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) |
Telephones - main lines in use | 231,900 (2000) | 38,000 (2002) |
Telephones - mobile cellular | 17,800 (2000) | 17,000 (2002) |
Television broadcast stations | 1 plus 24 repeaters (2002) | 4 with cable system (2004) |
Terrain | high plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley | low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs |
Total fertility rate | 5.55 children born/woman (2003 est.) | 1.9 children born/woman (2006 est.) |
Unemployment rate | NA% | 4.4% (2004) |
Waterways | none | - |